Broadening (or Generalisation) of Meaning. Narrowing (or Specialisation) of Meaning

(39) Sometimes transference => considerable change in range of meaning

to arrive (Fr. borr.): "to come to shore, to land" > "to come" (e. g. to arrive in a

village, town, city, country,

at a hotel, hostel, college,

theatre, place, etc.).

 

narrow meaning widened combinability → broad meaning;

developed through transference

based on contiguity; the range

of meaning is much broader

 

(40) pipe: "a musical wind instrument" > any hollow oblong cylindrical body (e. g. water pipes)

↑

developed through transference based on the similarity of shape (pipe as a musical instrument = a hollow oblong cylindrical object) => considerable broadening of the range of meaning

 

(41) bird: "the young of a bird" > any animal with wings

↑

developed through transference based on contiguity (the association is obvious). The second meaning is broader and more general

 

(42) girl: "a small child "a small child + a young + any + any

of either sex" > of the female sex" > unmarried > young > woman

↑ ↑ woman woman (coll.)

Mid.E. transference based

on contiguity → narrowed broadened range of meaning

range of meaning

 

(43) lady: OE hlǣfdi3e > the wife or daughter > Mod.E. any woman (formal, polite)

= mistress of of a baronet = ↑

the house aristocratic title range of meaning even

= any married ↑ broader than in OE

woman narrowed

range of meaning

 

(44) Deer: any beast > a certain kind of beast

Meat: any food > a certain food product

Boy: any young person of the male sex > servant of the male sex

↑

more narrow than that of the original meaning;

developed through transference based on contiguity

 

The So-called “Degeneration” (“Degradation”) and “Elevation” of Meaning

(45) NOT degeneration or elevation of meaning itself, but of the term onto which a word is transferred, so that the term is inaccurate

I. “Degeneration” of meaning.

(46) knave: boy > swindler, scoundrel

villain: farm-servant, serf > base, vile person

gossip: good parent > the one who talks scandal; tells

slanderous stories about other people

↑ ↑

no negative evaluative negative evaluative

connotation connotation

(47) silly: happy > foolish

II. “Elevation” of meaning

(48) fond: foolish > loving, affectionate

nice: foolish > fine, good

↑ ↑

negative evaluative no negative evaluative

connotation connotation

(49) tory: brigand, highwayman > member of the Tories

↑ ↑

pronounced negative connotation no negative connotation

(50) knight: manservant > noble, courageous man

↑ ↑

no positive evaluative connotation positive evaluative connotation

(51) marshal: manservant attending horses > the highest rank in the army

lord: master of the house, head of the family > baronet (aristocratic title)

lady: mistress of the house, married woman > wife or daughter of baronet

↑ ↑

no connotation of evaluation no connotation of evaluation

a humble ordinary person a person of high rank

developed due to the process

of transference based on contiguity

 

(52) The terms “degradation” and “elevation” of meaning are imprecise and do not seem to be an objective reflection of the semantic phenomenon they describe.

(53) Some cases of transference based on contiguity may result in development or loss of evaluative connotations